Non-Verbal Communication - Evolutionary Theory

It is thought that non-verbal communication could aid survival, it could help

• Ward off potential enemies/threats
• Reducing conflict/threat
• Allowing co-operation

In terms of reproduction, it could help by

• Allowing flirting
• Making someone seem more attractive
• Aiding communication in a relationship

Non-Verbal Communication - SLT

OUTLINE

Social learning - How a person's behaviour with, towards,and around others develops as a result of observing and imitating others both consciously and unconsciously.

The key concepts are

1. Observation - To watch someone with the purpose of learning about behaviour
2. Imitation - Doing, saying, and behaving the same as the 'model' who was observed doing, saying, or behaving.
3. Reinforcement - A process in which a behaviour is strengthened because the consequences are positive 
4. Punishment - Negative consequences following an action 
5. Role model - An individual who other people aspire to be like

There are significant cultural variations in some kinds of body language in different countries, which supports this theory. 

All these variations are results of the key concepts

1. Observation - We see how other people interact
2. Imitation - It's easier to repeat behaviour we see frequently
3. Reinforcement - Rewarded for following cultural norms
4. Punishment - Become reluctant to repeat punished behaviours

CRITICISMS 

1 - The theory can't explain why some non-verbal communication persists despite being punished

• Someone could be attacked for using a gesture, but still continue to use it. However they should have stopped due to associating the gesture with the negative consequences

2 - Not everyone can learn new forms of non-verbal communication

• Convicts are taught positive body language, but it often doesn't work
• If it was just learning, it shouldn't be so difficult to teach them these new behaviours

3 - It doesn't explain why children bought up in the same environment have different ways of communicating non-verbally

• They may express themselves differently

4 - It ignores the effect of nature on non-verbal communication

• There are universal gestures/expressions such as smiling.

Non-Verbal Communication - Key Concepts

Non-verbal communication - Telling others what we are thinking,feeling, or planning by some recognised body movement. It can be conscious or subconscious.

This is usually in one of two ways :

1 - Body Language

• Communicating something physically through our body, such as gestures
• These can be technical ( such as a police officer diverting traffic with arm movements) or coded (such as sign language)

2 - Facial Expressions

• Communicating through the movement of muscles in the face

Facial expressions, posture and gestures form 55% of our communication, tone of voice forms 38% and words form 7%.

Cognitive Development - Applications (Educating Children)

PIAGET

- The concept of readiness 

• Children can only learn what their current cognitive stage allows them to.
• Classrooms materials, subject specifications and ways of learning in class should match the stage and cognitive level of the pupil.
• Young children have to do things to learn
• Older children have to apply abstract thinking to learn

- Discovery learning

• Doing, rather than lecturing
• The teacher should ask questions, raise issues and devise activites
• The teacher is a facilitator, as the child learns individually

- Peer support

• Allow opportunities for unstructured and collaborative learning
• This helps the child decentre

VYGOTSKY

- Teacher should intervene

• It helps children develop their understanding and knowledge
• The teacher is the main person in the pupil's ZPD

- Spiral curriculum

• Difficult ideas are presented simply at first
• These ideas are then revisited at a more advanced level later on

- Scaffolding in the classroom

• People can advance a child's thinking by providing a support framework

Cognitive Development - Piaget & Conservation of Number (1952)

PROCEDURE

It was a cross-sectional study

• Different people represented different stages

They were shown, one at a time, two identical parallel rows of counters. They then spread one of the rows of the counters whilst the child watched. They were then asked which row had more counters

RESULTS

Children in the pre-operational stage (2-7 years) often said the stretched out row had more counters, as it was longer. They cannot conserve number

Children in the concrete operation stage (7-11 years) mostly said that they had the same amount in each row. They could conserve number

CRITICISMS

1 - The double-questioning may have had an effect

• In normal situations, children are only asked a question twice if they got the answer wrong at first
• When this was repeated and the children were only asked once, a higher number of children got the answer correct

2 - It was criticised for not being child friendly

• When McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974) had a 'naughty toy' spread the counters, 60% of the children in the pre-operational stage got the answer correct

3 - Piaget used a small sample

• It may not have been representative, so cannot be generalised

Cognitive Development - Vygotsky's Theory

Vygotsky thought that cognitive development isn't innate, it takes place within their culture. It lies in social and cognitive influences rather than maturation.

A child picks up cultural tools

• Language, writing, number systems and ideas from science
• Culture teaches us how an what to think

Everyone is born with potential, that others help us discover

- The gap between where you currently are in your development, and where you can move on to (with   help) is called the zone of proximal development (ZPD)

• This is aided by support from those around you, which is known as scaffolding

In this theory, stages aren't universal. They happen at an individual pace and are aided by the culture around them.

Cognitive Development - Piaget's Experiments

- Three Mountains (Egocentrism)

A child sits at one point (eg A) whilst an experimenter sits at the opposite part (eg C). The child is described to ask what they can see. They are then asked to describe what the experimenter can see. If they describe what they can see, then they are egocentric.


- Counters (Number)

The child is asked if there is the same amount of counters in each row, and they say yes. One of the rows are spaced apart whilst the child watches. They are asked the same question. If they say no, they cannot conserve number.



- Plasticine (Mass)

The child is asked if there is the same amount of plasticine, and they say yes. It is rolled whilst the child watches. They are asked the same question. If they say no, they cannot conserve mass.




- Liquid (Volume)

The child is asked if there is the same amount of liquid in both glasses, and they say yes. The contents of one glass is then poured into a taller glass. They are asked the same question. If they say no, they cannot conserve volume.