Phobias - Behaviourist Theory

OUTLINE

This theory states that phobias are learnt through classical conditioning. People learn their phobias, so they are often linked to bad encounters. However, some behaviours are instinctive, such as vomiting, anxiety or sexual arousal, these are unconditioned responses.

Pavlov's Dogs

UCS - Triggers a natural response

UCR - Is the natural response

NS - A stimulus that would normally cause no reaction

Sometimes, UCRs occur when a NS is present and they are paired together.

In classical conditioning, the NS needs to be repeatedly paired with the UCS to be learnt. However, if it is a traumatic experience, the association can be learnt after only one event.

 If repetition doesn't occur, the phobia is usually 'extinguished', meaning it is not formed.

Phobias are the result of a negative experience with the feared object, context or activity. In this situation, the CR is always fear. Fear itself is a UR, as it is instinctive.

Phobias are formed in three stages

Stage 1 - Classical Conditioning (as described above)

Stage 2 - Stimulus Generalization

• The CR is associated with similar stimuli.
• People do not only fear the original object/context/activity, but now also fear similar things
• For example, they will not fear one specific spider, they will fear all spiders and maybe even similar animals.

Stage 3 - Operant Conditioning

• If the consequences of a situation are rewarding the behaviour is repeated, but if the consequences are punishing, the behaviour will not be repeated.
• If you avoid the stimulus, this provides relief which is a positive consequence, so you repeat this and continue avoiding the stimulus
• If you attempt to face the stimulus, this causes anxiety which is a negative consequence, so you do not repeat the behaviour, and instead avoid the stimulus.

CRITICISMS

1 - By only focusing on behaviour, the mind and the thinking behind this behaviour is ignored.

Example - Two people are attacked. One may think about it rationally and realise it is unlikely to occur again, especially if they take precautions. The other person may think irrationally, and think of numerous attackers and develop a phobia of a common factor such as the dark.

Explanation - We don't just respond passively to surrounding stimuli, but think about what is happening to us too. People may form different associations. 

2 - Behaviourists assume that you need direct experience with the feared stimulus ; however, others argue that phobias can be learnt more indirectly

Example - Reading about a deadly situation such as a plane crash can make you afraid of being in a similar situation

Explanation - We can learn through vicarious reinforcement, such as in the SLT. People can observe and imitate role model's behaviours.

3 - Behaviourists cannot explain the fact that some people have phobias that they have no direct or indirect experiences of

Example - A number of British people are afraid of snakes. but have never come across one

Explanation - Phobias could be innate or social norms.

Phobias - Evolutionary Theory

This theory states that phobias are formed to ensure survival.

A psychologist called Seligma (1971) stated that being aware of dangers may be beneficial. This is as a 'biological preparedness' to fear certain things could aid survival.

The theory focuses on nature to explain phobias. Mainly,people wish to survive, which is aided by fear. This means they can survive to reproduce. If fear wasn't present,we would put ourselves in harmful situations.

Certain objects/situations threaten our survival more. In animal phobias, we fear them as they are unlike us in shape. As they are less closely related to us in terms of genes, we believe that they are more likely to attack us.

However, you still require a negative experience to form a phobia. Evidence suggests that the 'survival phobias' are difficult to treat or get rid of. This suggests that they are 'built in' rather than learnt.

This also explains why fast cars,guns and cigarettes aren't feared as our ancestors had no contact with these.

Phobias - Types of Phobias

A phobia is an intense, persistent and irrational fear of

• Objects (such as snakes or needles)
• Context (such as confined spaces or hospitals)
• Activities (such as flying or speaking on the phone)

Phobias are considered atypical behaviour as people show extreme fear in a non-threatening/moderately threatening situation. However, it is typical behaviour to experience fear.

The most common phobias are

• Agoraphobia -  Being in public, away from home
• School Phobia - Attending/ being in school
• Social Phobia - Embarrassment in social situations
• Acrophobia - Heights
• Arachnophobia - Spiders

Symptoms of phobias include

• Heart pounding
• Sweating
• Feeling sick
• Dizziness
• Difficulty concentrating
• Loss of control

A phobia is not just the fear of a stimulus, but it is also the active avoiding of it. This what creates a major impact on people's lives.

Agoraphobia

• Highly restrictive, people may become confined to their homes
• Fear of context
• Fear of being trapped in a place/situation where they may become trapped or struggle to escape

Social Phobia

• Can be specific, such as eating in public, or general.
• Most know this is irrational, but still experience panic days or even weeks in advance to the event
• Fear of activities

School Phobia

• Non-attendance is related to anxiety
• May fear leaving home or embarrassing themselves
• Most common in 11-12 year old boys
• Fear of context

Acrophobia

• More extreme than a typical fear
• Might not be able to walk on the roof of a tall building, or may have to kneel or crawl due to fear of losing their sense of balance
• Extreme sufferers may avoid any heights
• Fear of context

Arachnophobia

• Most common animal based phobia
• In extreme cases. cartoons or the word will be triggering
• Less extreme cases require an actual spider
• May check bed or clothes for spiders
• More common in women
• Fear of object.

 

Phobias - Watson & Rayner (1920)

PROCEDURE

Watson and Rayner subjected a child named 'Little Albert' to a variety of neutral stimuli at 9 months old, including live animals, masks and cotton. They also hit a steel bar, which produced a loud sound which caused him to cry. At 11 months, they offered Albert a white rat. When he reached out to stroke the rat, they hit the bar. This was repeated 7 times over 2 weeks.

RESULTS

The rat caused the same reaction as the bar being hit, which means it was now a conditioned stimulus. 5 days after conditioning, the phobia persisted and due to generalization, he also feared

• A rabbit
• A dog
• A sealskin coat
• Cotton
• A Santa Claus mask
• Watson's white hair

10 days after the initial conditioning, Albert still feared the rat, but it was less extreme.

1 month after the initial conditioning, only a mild of the rat was displayed. After this, Albert's mother withdrew him from the test.

CRITICISMS

 1 - The phobia was conditioned under artificial conditions

• This causes a lack of ecological validity 
• In a natural setting, variables may affect the conditioning
• This only proves that conditioning can occur in a laboratory setting
• This took more than one-trial, but phobias usually only require a singular experience

2 - Only one child was conditioned with a phobia in this study

• This is a small sample, so cannot be generalized
• It could be easier or harder for others to be conditioned, depending on factors such as age
• As only one phobia was developed, other phobias may be more difficult to form.

3 - There are a number of reasons why this study is highly unethical

• They didn't attempt to counter condition his phobia
• Some believe that the mother was not correctly informed, so informed consent wasn't given 

Hello !

This blog and its posts are now out of date for the OCR GCSE Psychology spec - but still acts as a great start off for A-Level.

Though criticisms may need to be expanded to ensure you get higher grades, the following are still applicable for AQA A-Level Psychology

Whole topics are covered in Cognitive Development, named 'Cognition and Development' at A-Level, Attachment, and Memory

Humanistic psychology is seen in 'The Self' topic

SLT theory is seen in SST as an application, Phobias from 'Psychopathology' is almost completely covered in 'Phobias', Dispositional and Situational theories for obedience/social influence, and the Psychodynamic Psychosexual Theory of Development 

There are also useful key studies for Aggression , Social Influence, Milgram (SI again)

Good luck, and if any of you did different topics and know if anything else if helpful tip us off !

Phobias - Treatments (Applications)

Flooding

• Immersed in fear - forced to face it
• The patient is meant to form a new association to overcome the phobia
• Initially, they will still feel fear, but the body cannot maintain the fear response. The response subsides (reduces)
• This therapy can cause psychological harm, and if the response is strong enough, physical harm. This causes ethical problems
• As they calm down, they are still in the feared situation, but they are relaxed. This means they form a new association or break the old one.

Systematic Desensitisation 

• This is considered more ethical than flooding
• Associations are formed gradually, and they are taught to completely relax
• Relaxation and fear cannot occur at the same time as they are mutually exclusive
• This is achieved through stages
• A hierarchy of fear is created, going from something they can cope with to their worst fear. They must be completely relaxed at each stage before they move onto the next step

Implosion Therapy

• Similar to flooding, but is more ethical as they imagine the worst situation rather than being physically placed in it.