Memory - Terry (2005)

PROCEDURE

Participants in groups of 15 were shown TV adverts in a repeated measures design. At the end of these adverts, they were asked to recall the products advertised. 

One group was shown immediately, whereas the other was asked after a 3 minute interference task.

The first group showed the serial position curve.

A representation of the serial position curve

Participants in this condition showed both the primacy and recency effect. The high recall at the start of the list is the primacy effect, this shows that the information was retained as they had time to rehearse it, thus transferring it from the STM to the LTM. The high recall at the end of the list is the recency effect, this shows that the information was still in their STM so they could recall it. The dip in the middle is due to the information decaying as it wasnt rehearsed enough, or being displaced by another advert.

As the second condition had an interference task, information would have been displaced from the STM, so they did not show the recency effect. However, they still displayed the primacy effect as they had time to rehearse the adverts at the beginning. 

This study proves the process of rehearsal can aid your memory, and also shows the presence of the STM and LTM. This proves the MSM.

CRITICISMS

1 - It lacked ecological validity

• It was a laboratory style study, so although they could control variables, it cannot apply to the real world.
• Additionally, TV adverts are not viewed in these conditions in real life, as people often ignore them. This is as the experiment was performed in artificial settings.

2 - It only tested memory for TV adverts

• This is not representative of all the things we have to remember
• TV adverts are only a narrow measure of what is being investigated.

3 - It brings about the problem of demand characteristics

• The results may be altered by the participants.
• The participants may have been able to gather clues from the artifical environment and act in a certain way to either help prove or disprove the experiment's desired result.

Memory - Levels of Processing

Levels of processing was created by Craik & Lockheart (1975)

There are two levels of processing, shallow processing and deep processing.

Shallow processing is only coding information on its physical characteristics such as if a word is written in capital letters.

Deep processing is coding information for its meaning, also known as semantically processing the information.

Memory - MSM (Attkinson & Shiffrin)

OUTLINE

The MSM ( Multistore Model) of memory- as created by Attkinson and Shiffrin.

Sensory memory is the store where immediate information is briefly held unless it is paid attention.

Short-term memory is the memory store that has a limited capacity and duration, and where information becomes conscious.It holds 7 (+/-) 2 chunks of information and lasts 30 seconds.

Long-term memory is the memory store that has unlimited capacity and duration. This is where information is permanently stored.

CRITICISMS

1 - The model is too rigid

• It ignores individual differences, and assumes that everyone's memory has the same structure.
• Some people may have a greater capacity, or be able to store certain types of information better.

2 - The model over-simplifies the STM and LTM

• The STM is more active, and can deal with different types of inputs.
• The LTM has different types of stores, such as procedural or declarative memory.

3 - The model overemphasizes the role of rehearsal

• Not all information in the LTM has to be rehearsed, for example a tragic event.
• There is a lot of information in the LTM due to it having meaning. 

Memory - Key Concepts

STM ( short-term memory) has a duration of 18- 30 seconds and has a capacity of 7 chunks (give or take 2). This is Miller's magic number.

LTM (long-term memory) has an unlimited duration and an unlimited capacity.

Information goes through the stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Input

• Taking in information through our senses, such as sounds coming into our ears in the form of sound waves

Encoding

• How we change information that has been input so we can make sense of it.
• Once information has been encoded, it can be stored

Storage

• Keeping information so we can use it again if necessary
• We store information in different ways (informational/procedural)
• How it is stored will affect how it is retrieved

Retrieval

• The process of recovering information from storage

Output

• Information that has been retrieved is 'output'
• This may result in taking action or choosing a response.

If information is not used, it may decay. If informated is 'pushed out' it is displaced.

This can lead to accessibility problems (problems associated with retrieving information in storage, such as the tip of the tongue phenomenon) or availability problems (problems associated with information no loner being stored)

Sex & Gender - Applications

EDUCATION

There is a gender gap in education where girls outperform boys in GCSEs and A-Levels. In this case, positive discrimination may be used to reduce the gap. This would require putting the sexes in extra classes of subjects they suffer in.

WORK

Men are often promoted and paid more for their work. This suggests that equal opportunities should be placed within the workplace.

Sex & Gender - Diamond & Sigmundson (1987)

PROCEDURE

Bruce Reimer was one of a pair of Canadian twins born in 1965. When the twins were 8 months old, they were taken to hospital to undergo circumcision. However, during this procedure, a majority of Bruce's penis was burnt off due to the presence of lasers in a new procedure. At this time, there was not enough medical knowledge to reconstruct a new penis for him. A psychologist Dr John Money suggested that they raised boy as a girl, as he believed that we are psychosexually neutral at birth.

Thus, at the age of 17 months, he was castrated and renamed Brenda, from there onwards they were raised as a girl. Dr Money monitored Brends using interviews and observation.

RESULTS 

As Brenda approached puberty, she was given hormones, yet she still maintained a relatively masculine appearance and mannerisms. Additionally, she experienced attraction to girls and rejected boys who showed interest in her. Finally, she preferred masculine activities such as sports.

When she was 13, Brenda's parents revealed what had happened to her. Relieved, Brenda renamed himself as David, had his penis reconstructed, and married a woman.

This means that this study supports the biological theory.

CRITICISMS

1 - The study features a very small sample

• This means that it cannot be generalised to a larger population, as this person could be an exception.

2 - Extraneous variables could've effected the outcome

• Extraneous variables such as the presence of a twin brother, and his parents' knowledge of his original sex could affect the way his gender identity developed.
•  Furthermore, the contamination effect may have affected his gender development, as he was raised as a boy for the first 17 months of his life.

3 - Dr Money became biased, and was considered unethical

• Dr Money made the twins pose in compromising positions in order to further enforce gender roles.
• Dr Money also didn't report Brenda's presence of masculine features.

4 - It ignored ethical guidelines

• Bruce was subject to psychological harm
• Bruce could not provide informed consent for the sex change operation
• Bruce also didn't provide informed consent for being studied, and wasn't given the right for withdrawal.

Sex & Gender - Psychodynamic Approach

OUTLINE

This theory was created by Freud, who believed that gender identity is related to upbringing rather than biology. Between the ages of 3 and 5 children experience a subconscious attraction to their parent of the opposite sex.

Boys undergo the Oedipus complex. This is a conflict that occurs when boys subconsciously desire their mother but fear their father finding out. They believe that if he finds out, they will castrate them, this is called castration anxiety. The boy then identifies with his father, and adopts masculine behaviour.

Girls undergo the Electra complex. This is a conflict that occurs when girls unconsciously desire their father but worry about losing their mother's love. They blame their mother for their lack of a penis, which is called penis envy. To fulfill this, they desire a baby to act as a penis substitute. As they realize their mother is the same, they identify with her and adopt feminine behaviour.

Sex & Gender - Biological Theory

OUTLINE

This theory states that sex and gender are linked, fixed, and determined at birth. This is determined by biological factors such as chromosomes and hormones.

Up to 6 weeks after fertilization, the fetus' sex organs are called gonads. At 6 weeks these will develop into testes if testosterone is present, but will develop into ovaries if the hormone is not present.

CRITICISMS

 1 - The theory ignores the role of nurture

•  Gender behaviour may also be learnt, as the sexes are socialized differently. For example, girls are complimented on their appearance whilst boys are discouraged from crying.

2 - Gender and sex are not always linked

• This can be seen across cultures. In countries such as Korea, men are seen as 'feminine' by western standards.
• Sex and gender are not always the same, transgender people have a gender identity which is the binary opposite to their sex.

3 - Gender is not fixed

• People's gender identity can change as they age. Although someone may be a tomboy when they are younger, they may become more feminine when they are older.

Sex & Gender - Key Concepts

Sex is biological. It is associated with chromosomes

Gender is psychological and fluid.

Masculinity is a gender term associated with male traits and roles such as aggressiveness and playing sports.

Femininity is a gender term associated with  female traits and roles such as being sensitive and playing with dolls.

Androgyny is a type of gender where an individual shows both masculine and feminine traits.